The dollar rebounded to pare some of its recent losses on Friday, as slumping stocks and violence in Egypt helped boost the greenback’s safe haven appeal.
Traders shrugged off a mixed bag of economic data from the U.S., including a government report showing slower than expected GDP growth in the fourth quarter.
The dollar rose to $1.3600 versus the euro, moving away from yesterday’s 2-month low of $1.3757.
Late morning gains took the dollar to within a hair of parity versus its petro-linked Canadian counterpart, even as the price of oil jumped on supply concerns.
At the same time, the buck improved to $1.5840 compared to $1.5975 earlier today.
However, Japan’s yen garnered the most safe haven interest, causing the buck to slip back to Y82 from Y83.
Egypt’s army has been called in to downtown Cairo to quell protests aimed at replacing the nation’s political leadership. Its is feared that civil unrest could spread elsewhere in the Arab world, destabilizing the oil-rich Middle East.
Here in the U.S., the economy grew at a 3.2 percent annual rate in the final three months of 2010, the Commerce Department said, after expanding at a 2.6 percent pace in the third quarter. Economists expected the economy to grow between 3.5 and 3.7 percent.
Consumer spending in the world’s largest economy rose the most in four years, but the increase gross domestic product failed to generate enough jobs to improve the jobs situation.
Meanwhile, a reading of consumer sentiment fell from December, but was stronger than analysts expected.
The Reuters and the University of Michigan consumer sentiment index for January was upwardly revised to 74.2 from the preliminary reading of 72.7. The index is well above expectations for a reading of 73.0 but is still just below the December reading of 74.5.
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La théorie égyptienne et ses variantesL’hypothèse d’une origine égyptienne de la tarologie vient d’Antoine Court de Gébelin ( ces cartes maudites venues
d’Égypte ) 29.L’association à l’Égypte semble venir d’une
tendance à l’égyptomanie30 sans bavure à l’époque,
et du fait qu’on a pu désigner comme hiéroglyphes les clichés censées cacher un sens secret dans une représentation codifiée.
Romain Merlin balaya cette hypothèse en 186931.L’idée fit florès
à une siècle où l’égyptomanie était en vogue – phénomène qui allait s’amplifier avec la campagne d’Égypte – et fut récupérée par divers occultistes : Etteilla, Papus, Éliphas
Lévi ou encore Aleister Crowley. La théorie reprise par Etteilla dans sa labeur Manière de se récréer avec le jeu de cartes nommé Tarots en 1781, inspira l’auteur à en créer diverses versions
en jeux de cartes – Le grand Etteilla et Le Grand Etteilla II, jeux dits égyptiens
– de même que Papus allait le faire en 1889,
récupérant au passage l’association aux bohémiens avec un tarot des
bohémiens ( cf. infra ), et encore par exemple R.
Falconnier en 1896 avec les XXII lames hermétiques du Tarot divinatoire.Pour Éliphas Lévi, la cause du tarot populaire en son temps ( qu’il attribue de façon erronée à Jacquemin Gringonneur ) serait juive et il serait seulement inspiré d’une
façon détournée par l’alphabet de Thauth ( sic )
32.Cette théorie a entraîné la perpétuation des
spéculations des occultistes cités plus haut et inspiré la
création et la diffusion de nombreux petits jeux de tarot tels les tarots Égyptiens depuis les années qui ont suivi la publication du
livre d’Etteilla jusqu’au XXIe âge, par diverses maisons d’édition.Les BohémiensBreitkopf dans
Versuch den Ursprung der Spielkarten, die Einfuehrung des Leinenpapieres, und den Anfang der holzschneidekunst
in Europa zu erforschen33 propose en 1784 une transmission des jeux de cartes de
tarot par les Bohémiens, qu’il faisait venir d’Inde, qui auraient donné les cartes aux
Arabes qui auraient introduit eux-mêmes les cartes
en métropole. Cette origine bohémienne est de nos jours
liée à l’Inde.Encore une fois Romain Merlin désamorce
cette théorie en en expliquant les rouages34 : les cartes étaient déjà renommées avant
l’arrivée des bohémiens, la divination par les cartes (
qui servait de confirmation aux tenants de l’hypothèse bohémienne ) est toute récente.L’idée inspira toutefois aussi Papus dont le tarot – quoique réputé égyptien selon son auteur – fut nommé le tarot des bohémiens.Théories alternativesPlusieurs théories alternatives
continuent à rouler sur l’intrigue du tarot de Marseille.
Différents auteurs offrent des thèses où le tarot serait : la perpétuation d’une tradition bachique35d’origine celtique36un artefact construit par les Cathares
37une création médiévale de l’abbé bénédictin Suger38Ces différentes
thèses trouvent toutes l’origine de la tarologie avant la création des cartes italiennes du XVe siècle.Hypothèses sur le tarot comme par exemple évolution des jeux italiensD’autres auteurs, sans questionner forcément le départ lombarde, voient se rajouter sur le tarot préexistant l’expression d’héritages et de traditions auparavant étrangers au tarot.
Lesdits héritages ne s’excluent pas forcément entre eux ;
ils pourraient même être liés : par le contexte historique, aux
humanistes ( italiens ) de la Renaissance39d’une façon semblable, à une
tradition hermétique et/ou néoplatonicienne : toutes les cartes de
la tarologie de Marseille contiennent en effet des représentations très ciblées
d’éléments allégoriques décrits dans les articles originaux
grecs de Platon ( et rapportées pour la 1ère fois dans les traductions latines réalisées par Marsile Ficin ),
cependant c’est aussi le cas de multiples travaux artistiques de
la Renaissance. En s’inspirant des considérations de l’astrologie et numérologiques
de Marsile Ficin, Christophe Poncet propose une disposition non chronologique, sur 3 lignes et sept colonnes40.
Les lignes représenteraient les 3 niveaux de l’âme – céleste, intermédiaire et terrestre – et les colonnes, représenteraient les sept astres – Jupiter, Mars, Vénus, Soleil, Lune, Mercure et Saturne.
au compagnonnage du Moyen Âge – c’est un des mythes ou hypothèses entretenus par la Franc-Maçonnerie, représenté en premier lieu par Oswald Wirth dans son Tarot des imagiers du Moyen Age.
à la tradition de l’astrologie41Hypothèse
avignonnaiseAvignon fut, au XIVème âge, de 1305 à 1403, le centre de l’Europe et du monde chrétien, le siège des papes et de différents cardinaux et courtisans.
Cette cité a attiré des artistes en masse des Flandres, d’Ile de France,
d’Espagne, de Moselle, d’Italie du Nord, d’Angleterre, et au-delà, sans omettre les miniaturistes parisiens.
Avignon était une cité du Comtat Venaissin et faisait partie du Saint
Empire Romain Germanique. Des milliers de dessins,
croquis, en noir, en bistre ou en tonalités ont été accumulés durant presqu’un âge.Mais voilà des offres de remises,
paradoxe, cette cité cosmopolite, grouillante d’artistes, attirant pèlerins, artisans, banquiers ;
où on parlait le provençal, le francilien ou le français, et le
florentin, plus le latin évidemment, a été vidée de toutes ses richesses.
Il ne faut donc pas s’étonner de l’absence exceptionnel de toute trace de cartes à jouer, puisque
tout a pratiquement disparu sauf les habitations et leurs fresques.À l’époque,
nombre d’éléments symboliques et figures allégoriques circulaient
en photos destinées à un peuple majoritairement analphabète.
Vies de saints, de Jésus, de Marie, mais aussi des vignettes à but éducatif, issues du monde
antique et chrétien. En Provence, on les appelait nahipi, et aussi ybes ou ybys, comme les naïbis pour les
petits en Italie et devenues naipes ensuite en Espagne.
dans toutes ces photos, il y a celles qui ont été ajoutées dans certains petits jeux de cartes, créant alors les atouts du
tarot. Il y avait le choix : on a retrouvé une planche ( fin XVème ) de cinquante images ( Fig.
1 ) sur laquelle on trouve, en plus de celles qui sont les atouts
de la tarologie, la Logique, la Rhétorique, la Théologie, la Misère, le Temps, la
Prudence, la Charité, l’Espoir, la Raison, la Mélancolie,
et aussi Mercure, Vénus, Jupiter, Apollon, Calliope,
etc., qui auraient pu être à la place de la Tempérance, du Monde, des Amoureux, de la Maison Dieu, de la Force, de la Lune,
du Soleil…etc. Il faut lire Christine de Pisan, Martin Le Franc et jusqu’à
Le Cœur d’Amour Epris de René d’Anjou ( Roi René ), où nous trouvons, outre la Tempérance, la Force,
la Fortune, cela signifie tous les atouts reconnus, des Vertu, Raison, Espérance,
Mélancolie, Vice, Paresse, Amour, Chasteté, tous composants
qui auraient pu être à la place des points forts existants.Par ailleurs, l’absence totale de dames dans les petits jeux
de cartes italiens, tout comme dans les petits jeux dits espagnols, alors
que les cartes françaises en ont toujours eu, nous amène tout accès vers notre tarot.
Un acte notarié daté de 1381, qui prohibé
à un marin marseillais de jouer aux cartes durant sa traversée vers l’Egypte, démontre qu’il y avait bel et différentes cartes42.
Et on ne peut imaginer un isolé instant que les cartiers marseillais
ou avignonnais aient pu connaître l’existence du Tarot Visconti, caché dans un écrin ou un coffret dans un palais
ducal de Milan. L’inverse paraît plus probable.
Nous sommes là près de le dilemme de l’œuf et de la poule mais, j’insiste,
qui a la force de aujourd’hui démontrer que Marseille a copié des tarots ducaux et non pas le contraire ?…Mieux :
Au Musée du Petit Palais d’Avignon, il y a des
fresques provenant d’une maison de Sorgues dont une qui montre un Valet de chien ( Fig.
deux ). Ces fresques auraient été peintes entre 1360 et
1380. A Villeneuve-lès-Avignon, peint à identique siècle
papale, il y a un autre Valet de toutou ! ( Fig.
quelques ). Or, les Fous, ou Fol, ou Mat des tarots ont un chiot accroché à leurs basques.
Mieux encore, il y a de nombreux Valets au toutou dans
les cartes à jouer faites à Marseille, Avignon, Paris, Lyon, Rouen, Strasbourg, ainsi que dans les jeux à portrait français édités à
Bruxelles, Munich, Düsseldorf, Vienne, Prague, le Liechtenstein (
Fig. quatre ). Ils sont généralement valets de pique ( Fig.
cinq ), sauf exception ( Fig. 6 ). Il n’y en a pratiquement pas dans les cartes
italiennes sauf les Fous repris du Tarot
de Marseille.La plus ancienne carte connue est celle qui fait partie de la saga dite « de
Goldschmidt », du nom du collectionneur qui possédait neuf cartes de ce jeu, peintes sur parchemin, et qui sont considérées comme étant Provençales.
Ce jeu a, en plus d’un valet et de son chiot ( Fig. 7 ),
un 5 de bâtons, un as de coupes et un as de deniers !
C’étaient les entreprises en cours dans le midi à cette âge ).
Le problème toutefois, pour ceux qui négligent le fait
que rien n’était institutionnalisé au XIVème âge, qui est
celui qui a vu apparaitre les cartes à jouer et où il y avait une liberté de création intégrale ( rencontrer les petits jeux faits main de la
Chasse d’Ambras et celui de Stuttgart, et voir aussi
le Fou d’un autre Tarot Visconti qui est à Yale University ), c’est qu’il est traduit que le tarot n’a pu être pensé en une
seule fois, mais que des images y ont été introduites pour
rendre le jeu ordinaire plus compliquée.Ces images
étaient différentes, et qu’importe leur « donné à mater
» puisqu’elles étaient considérées comme par exemple autant d’atouts ou de triomphes, images que l’on retrouvait par ailleurs tant dans la bibliothèque
de Charles V que dans celle de Charles VI.
Le isolé ennui, pour ceux qui croient dur comme fer que
le tarot a été découvert d’une seule pièce et conçu par un seul peintre, alors qu’il ne s’agit aucunement de peinture mais joli
et bien d’enluminures, est que le peintre à qui on attribue l’ « idee » du tarot est
plutôt célèbre comme par exemple fresquiste.A ce propos, il est
opportun de rappeler l’immense succès à travers l’Europe du Livre
de la Chasse de Gaston Phébus dont le plus bel exemplaire fut exécuté début XVème,
celui qui convient le mieux à l’épanouissement de l’art subtil de
l’enluminure encouragé par les Ducs de Berry, de Bourgogne et de Bedford.
avant où fut illuminé ce manuscrit 616 ( BN ), dont les illustrations ont des fonds guillochés, tout comme par exemple dans des manuscrits antérieurs qui
ont été faits par des enlumineurs avignonnais fin XIVème tout était fait par une
équipe d’artisans différents, et qui ne signaient pas les œuvres.
en tout cas, et pour revenir aux Valets et aux Fous au chien, un grand
collectionneur anglais de la fin du XIXe, George Clulow, possédait ce qu’il pensait être les
cartes à jouer les plus anciennes d’Europe et les considérait comme par exemple provençales.
Il s’agit de deux Valets, pique et trèfle, accompagnés
d’un toutou évidemment ( Fig. huit ), mais quantités
de ces Valets et de ces Fous peuvent être trouvés dans des dizaines et des dizaines de jeux !
( Fig. 5 et six ).Autre découverte. quel que soit le tarot que vous pourrez avoir entre les mains, vous pourrez constater que l’Impératrice, et de temps en temps l’Empereur, ont un « aigle
» sur leur blason ( Fig. neuf ). Enquête réalisée, il ne
s’agit aucunement d’un aigle ( pour ceux qui pensent que,
Avignon faisant partie du Saint Empire Romain Germanique, il s’agirait d’un aigle dorénavant ensuite aigle bicéphale ).
Ce blason montre en fait un Gerfaut et… c’était tout à
fait l’emblème d’Avignon, jusqu’à ce que la Reine Jeanne ne vende la ville d’Avignon au pape Clément VI en 1348 ( Fig.
dix ).Ce dernier a voulu changer le blason officiel en y mettant 3 clés, mais les protestations des avignonnais lui ont fait réviser sa décision.
D’ailleurs, les murs de la salle située au premier étage de la Médiathèque d’Avignon, ancienne livrée du Cardinal Ceccano, sont ornés de blasons surmontés d’une arcature, exécutés entre
1340 et 1350 et le Gerfaut y est bien présent ( Fig.
11 ).Le dernier pape d’Avignon, Pedro de Luna, dit Benoît XIII, évite, déguisé, le palais et Avignon pour Châteaurenard.
La fin de la papauté en Avignon raison une véritable débandade, amorcée en 1398,
vidant la ville d’une grande partie de ses habitants et dispersant à
travers l’Europe tout ce qui pouvait être emporté…
néanmoins, ces nouveaux indices devraient aider à d’envisager de nouvelles solutions de recherche.
Hélas, pendant la guerre de rattachement de la cité
papale à la france, les nombreuses archives ont été détruites en 1790
-1791.Quelques données historiques à l’appui de cette hypothèseDans les villes voisines d’Avignon,
dans les petites villes de Sorgues et Entraigues, on recense dès le XIVème âge bon nombre de moulins destinés
à la réalisation du papier. Ainsi, un acte passé
près de un notaire avignonnais, le 15 janvier 1431, nous dit qu’un artisan exploitant des
moulins autour de la ville vend à des marchands italiens toute sa fabrication de
papier, dont du papier pour carte à jouer
43.L’existence de «tailleurs de molles» ( moules ) qui ont été trouvée à Dijon en 1393,
à Ulm en 1398 alors qu’ à Florence, rien n’empêche donc une ville comme Avignon de compter eu des tailleurs de moules pour cartes.
Le pape Clément V prônait la diffusion d’images saintes.
Le premier cartier avignonnais célèbre était mercier depuis 1419 et, en 1439,
il est désigné comme factor cartorum,
puis factor cartorum et pictor, des emplois loin d’être incompatibles au XVe
âge. 44 On peut supposer qu’une partie de cette production partait vers la région mais aussi vers Lyon45.
En effet, un document, daté de 1337 et trouvé à l’abbaye Saint-Victor à Marseille,
interdisait de jouer aux « feuilles de papier », devenues cartes par la suite.Pétrarque, installé en Avignon de 1312 à 1354, compose à son retour en Italie ses
Trionfi, noms donnés aux atouts du tarot en Italie.La première mention du mot « taraux » a été trouvée,
en 1505, entièrement en Avignon, et l’on sait depuis lors que le mot tarocchi,
dont les italiens n’ont jamais trouvé la cause, vient du sud ( rive droite du Rhône ) de ce qui n’était pas encore la métropole.
46Quand on regarde les rares petits jeux qui ont survécu
– « La Chasse à la Cour d’Ambras », le jeu dit de
Stuttgart, les cartes dites de Goldschmidt, sans dialoguer de
celles proposées aux Visconti ou celles dites de
Charles VI, on assiste au que la fantaisie était totale : rois de
fleurs, femmes de perroquets, valets de
grenades, à pied ou à cheval, séries d’animaux, propose du monde ecclésiastique et civil, produits symboliques et figures allégoriques…
Une exceptionnel fantaisie bien de son temps, bien de son siècle, comme
en témoignent les centaines d’enluminures et de miniatures faites à
travers la france, territoire royal, mais aussi
en Avignon, territoire papal. 47 Utilisation en cartomancie et héritage ésotériqueIl est généralement admis que les
cartes qui sont à l’origine de la tarologie de Marseille,
tout comme le tarot de Marseille lui-même, ont été créées afin d’une utilisation ludique48.
L’hypothèse qui jouit du plus grand consensus chez les chercheurs est celle de Michael Dummett
qui affirme que tous les usages technologiques de la tarologie en cartomancie ont leur
source chez Antoine Court de Gébelin et Louis de Fayolle,
comte de Mellet ( ‘M. le C. de M. ’ ) 49.Il faut attendre la fin du XVIIIe époque pour entendre échanger avec certitude de cartomancie utilisant le tarot de Marseille, avec Antoine Court de Gébelin – même si certains auteurs présentent des indices
qui feraient remonter l’utilisation divinatoire de la tarologie à
des dates antérieures50.Les cartes du tarot sont appelées lames majeures et mineures ou arcanes majeurs
et mineurs par les ésotéristes et les occultistes en comptant max 186351.Aujourd’hui, les auteurs de l’activité occultiste, hermétiste ou ésotérique prêtent au tarot divers
usages : chemin initiatique, préservation d’une tradition ( alchimique à titre d’exemple ), tarot divinatoire,
etc. sans forcément remettre qui vous a tapé dans l’oeil
son origine historique ou sa date d’apparition.
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